The establishment of a Polish state can be traced back towhen Mieszko I[10] ruler of a territory roughly coextensive with that of present-day Poland, converted to Christianity. The Kingdom of Poland was founded inand in it cemented a longstanding political association with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania by signing the Union of Lublin.

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Following the partitions of Poland at the end of the 18th century, Poland regained its independence in with the Treaty of Versailles. In SeptemberWorld War II started with the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germanyfollowed by the Soviet Union invading Poland in accordance with the Molotov—Ribbentrop Pact.

More than six million of Poland's citizens died in the war. Poland is the eighth largest and one of the most dynamic economies in the European Union[16] [17] [18] simultaneously achieving a "very high" ranking on the Human Development Index. The origin of the name Poland derives from a West Slavic tribe of Polans Polanie that inhabited the Warta River basin of the historic Greater Poland region in the 8th century. The origin of the name Polanie itself derives from the western Slavic word pole field.

In some languages, such as Hungarian, Lithuanian, Persian and Turkish, the exonym for Poland is Lechites Lechiciwhich derives from the name of a semi-legendary ruler of Polans, Lech I. Historians have postulated that throughout Late Antiquitymany distinct ethnic groups populated the regions of what is now Poland.

The ethnicity and linguistic affiliation of these groups have been hotly debated; the time and route of the original settlement of Slavic peoples in these regions lacks written records and can only be defined as fragmented. The most famous archaeological find from the prehistory and protohistory of Poland is the Biskupin fortified settlement now reconstructed as an open-air museumdating from the Lusatian culture of the early Iron Agearound BC.

The Slavic groups who would form Poland migrated to these areas in the second half of the 5th century AD. Up until the creation of Mieszko's state and his subsequent conversion to Christianity in AD, the main religion of Slavic tribes that inhabited the geographical area of present-day Poland was Slavic paganism.

With the Baptism of Poland the Polish rulers accepted Christianity and the religious authority of the Roman Church. However, the transition from paganism was not a smooth and instantaneous process for the rest of the population as evident from the pagan reaction of the s.

Poland began to form into a recognizable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under the Piast dynasty. Poland's first historically documented ruler, Mieszko Iaccepted Christianity with the Baptism of Poland inas the new official religion of his subjects. The bulk of the population converted in the course of the next few centuries. The significance of the event was documented by Gallus Anonymus in his chronicle. InKonrad I of Masoviaone of the regional Piast dukes, invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the Baltic Prussian pagans; a decision that led to centuries of warfare with the Knights.

Inthe Statute of Kalisz or the General Charter of Jewish Liberties introduced numerous right for the Jews in Poland, leading to a nearly autonomous "nation within a nation".

In the middle of the 13th century, the Silesian branch of the Piast dynasty Henry I the Bearded and Henry II the Piousruled —41 nearly succeeded in uniting the Polish lands, but the Mongols invaded the country from the east and defeated the combined Polish forces at the Battle of Legnica where Duke Henry II the Pious died. His son, Casimir III reigned —70has a reputation as one of the greatest Polish kings, and gained wide recognition for improving the country's infrastructure.

The Golden Liberty of the nobles began to develop under Casimir's rule, when in return for their military supportthe king made a series of concessions to the nobility, and establishing their legal status as superior to that of the townsmen.

When Casimir the Great died inleaving no legitimate male heir, the Piast dynasty came to an end. During the 12th and 13th centuries, Poland became a destination for German, Flemish and to a lesser extent Scottish, Danish and Walloon migrants. Also, the Jews and Armenians began to settle and flourish in Poland during this era see History of the Jews in Poland and Armenians in Poland.

The Black Deatha plague that ravaged Europe from to did not significantly affect Poland, and the country was spared from a major outbreak of the disease. The Jagiellon dynasty spanned the late Middle Ages and early Modern Era of Polish history. The partnership brought vast Lithuania -controlled Rus' areas into Poland's sphere of influence and proved beneficial for the Poles and Lithuanians, who coexisted and cooperated in one of the largest political entities in Europe for the next four centuries.

In the Baltic Sea region Poland's struggle with the Teutonic Knights continued and culminated in the Battle of Grunwaldwhere a combined Polish-Lithuanian army inflicted a decisive victory against the Teutonic Knights, allowing for territorial expansion of both nations into the far north region of Livonia.

The Jagiellon dynasty at one point also established dynastic control over the kingdoms of Bohemia onwards and Hungary. Some historians estimate that Crimean Tatar slave-raiding cost Poland-Lithuania one million of its population between the years of and Poland was developing as a feudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerful landed nobility.

The Nihil novi act adopted by the Polish Sejm parliament intransferred most of the legislative power from the monarch to the Sejm, an event which marked the beginning of the period known as "Golden Liberty", when the state was ruled by the "free and equal" Polish nobility. Protestant Reformation movements made deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time.

The European Renaissance evoked in late Jagiellon Poland kings Sigismund I the Old and Sigismund II Augustus a sense of urgency in the need to promote a cultural awakeningand during this period Polish culture and the nation's economy flourished.

Another major figure associated with the era is the classicist poet Jan Kochanowski. The Union of Lublin established the Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealtha more closely unified federal state with an elective monarchybut which was governed largely by the nobility, through a system of local assemblies with a central parliament. The Warsaw Confederation confirmed the religious freedom of all residents of Poland, which was extremely important for the stability of the multiethnic Polish society of the time.

In the Tsar of Russia paid homage to the King of Poland. From the middle of the 17th century, the nobles' democracy, suffering from internal disorder, gradually declined, thereby leaving the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign intervention. Starting inthe Cossack Khmelnytsky Uprising engulfed the south and east, eventually leaving Ukraine divided, with the eastern part, lost by the Commonwealth, becoming a dependency of the Tsardom of Russia.

This was followed by the 'Deluge'a Swedish invasion of Poland, which marched through the Polish heartlands and ruined the country's population, culture and infrastructure. Around four million of Poland's eleven million inhabitants died in famines and epidemics. Sobieski's reign marked the end of the nation's golden era.

Finding itself subjected to almost constant warfare and suffering enormous population losses as well as massive damage to its economy, the Commonwealth fell into decline. The government became ineffective as a result of large-scale internal conflicts e.

Lubomirski Rebellion against John II Casimir and rebellious confederations and corrupted legislative processes. The nobility fell under the control of a handful of magnatsand this, compounded with two relatively weak kings of the Saxon Wettin dynastyAugustus II and Augustus IIIas well as the rise of Russia and Prussia after the Great Northern War only served to worsen the Commonwealth's plight.

Despite this The Commonwealth-Saxony personal union gave rise to the emergence of the Commonwealth's first reform movement, and laid the foundations for the Polish Enlightenment. During the later part of the 18th century, the Commonwealth made attempts to implement fundamental internal reforms; with the second half of the century bringing a much improved economy, significant population growth and far-reaching progress in the areas of education, intellectual life, art, and especially toward the end of the period, evolution of the social and political system.

However, as a one-time personal admirer of Empress Catherine II of Russiathe new king spent much of his reign torn between his desire to implement reforms necessary to save his nation, and his perceived necessity to remain in a political relationship with his Russian sponsor.

This led to the formation of the Bar Confederationa szlachta rebellion directed against the Polish king and his Russian sponsors, which aimed to preserve Poland's independence and the szlachta's traditional privileges. Attempts at reform provoked the union's neighbours, and in the First Partition of the Commonwealth by Prussia, Russia and Austria took place; an act which the " Partition Sejm ", under considerable duress, eventually "ratified" fait accompli.

Corporal punishment of children was officially prohibited in However, this document, accused by detractors of harbouring revolutionary sympathies, generated strong opposition from the Commonwealth's nobles and conservatives as well as from Catherine II, who, determined to prevent the rebirth of a strong Commonwealth set about planning the final dismemberment of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Russia was aided in achieving its goal when the Targowica Confederationan organisation of Polish nobles, appealed to the Empress for help.

In MayRussian forces crossed the Commonwealth's frontier, thus beginning the Polish-Russian War. The defensive war fought by the Poles ended prematurely when the King, convinced of the futility of resistance, capitulated and joined the Targowica Confederation.

The Confederation then took over the government. Russia and Prussia, fearing the mere existence of a Polish state, arranged for, and in executed, the Second Partition of the Commonwealthwhich left the country deprived of so much territory that it was practically incapable of independent existence.

Poles rebelled several times against the partitionersparticularly near the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century. InNapoleon I of France temporarily recreated a Polish state as the satellite Duchy of Warsawafter a successful Greater Poland Uprising of against Prussian rule. But, after the failed Napoleonic WarsPoland was again split between the victorious powers at the Congress of Vienna of However, over time the Russian monarch reduced Polish freedoms, and Russia annexed the country in virtually all but name.

Meanwhile, the Prussian controlled territory of Poland came under increased Germanization. Throughout the period of the partitions, political and cultural repression of the Polish nation led to the organisation of a number of uprisings against the authorities of the occupying Russian, Prussian and Austrian governments. Inthe November Uprising began in Warsaw when, led by Lieutenant Piotr Wysockiyoung non-commissioned officers at the Officer Cadet School in Warsaw revolted.

They were joined by large segments of Polish society, and together forced Warsaw's Russian garrison to withdraw north of the city. Over the course of the next seven months, Polish forces successfully defeated the Russian armies of Field Marshal Hans Karl von Diebitsch and a number of other Russian commanders; however, finding themselves in a position unsupported by any other foreign powers, save distant France and the newborn United States, and with Prussia and Austria refusing to allow the import of military supplies through their territories, the Poles accepted that the uprising was doomed to failure.

Upon the surrender of Warsaw to General Ivan Paskievichmany Polish troops, feeling they could not go on, withdrew into Prussia and there laid down their arms. After the defeat, the semi-independent Congress Poland lost its constitution, army and legislative assembly, and was integrated more closely with the Russian Empire.

During the Spring of Nations a series of revolutions which swept across EuropePoles took up arms in the Greater Poland Uprising of to resist Prussian rule. Initially, the uprising manifested itself in the form of civil disobedience, but eventually turned into an armed struggle when the Prussian military was sent in to pacify the region.

Eventually, after several battles the uprising was suppressed by the Prussians, and the Grand Duchy of Posen was stripped of its autonomy and completely incorporated into the German Confederation. Ina new Polish uprising against Russian rule began. The January Uprising started out as a spontaneous protest by young Poles against conscription into the Imperial Russian Army. However, the insurrectionists, despite being joined by high-ranking Polish-Lithuanian officers and numerous politicians, were still severely outnumbered and lacking in foreign support.

They were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare tactics and failed to win any major military victories. Afterwards no major uprising was witnessed in the Russian-controlled Congress Poland, and Poles resorted instead to fostering economic and cultural self-improvement.

Despite the political unrest experienced during the partitions, Poland did benefit from large-scale industrialisation and modernisation programs, instituted by the occupying powers, which helped it develop into a more economically coherent and viable entity. This was particularly true in Greater Poland, Silesia and Eastern Pomerania controlled by Prussia later becoming a part of the German Empire ; areas which eventually, thanks largely to the Greater Poland Uprising of and Silesian Uprisingswere reconstituted as a part of the Second Polish Republicbecoming the country's most prosperous regions.

During World War Iall the Allies agreed on the reconstitution of Poland that United States President Woodrow Wilson proclaimed in Point 13 of his Fourteen Points.

A total of 2 million Polish troops fought with the armies of the three occupying powers, anddied. Shortly after the armistice with Germany in NovemberPoland regained its independence as the Second Polish Republic II Rzeczpospolita Polska. It reaffirmed its independence after a series of military conflictsthe most notable being the Polish—Soviet War —21 when Poland inflicted a crushing defeat on the Red Army at the Battle of Warsawan event which is considered to have halted the advance of Communism into Europe and forced Vladimir Lenin to rethink his objective of achieving global socialism.

The event is often referred to as the "Miracle at the Vistula". During this period, Poland successfully managed to fuse the territories of the three former partitioning powers into a cohesive nation state.

Railways were restructured to direct traffic towards Warsaw instead of the former imperial capitals, a new network of national roads was gradually built up and a major seaport was opened on the Baltic Coast, so as to allow Polish exports and imports to bypass the politically charged Free City of Danzig.

The inter-war period heralded in a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up until the First World War, the country now found itself trying to establish a new political tradition. For this reason, many exiled Polish activists, such as Ignacy Paderewski who would later become prime minister returned home to help; a significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures.

As result of the Munich Agreement inmajor European powers Germany, France, Britain and Italy awarded Poland the small sq mi Zaolzie Region of Czechoslovakia. The area was a point of contention between the Polish and Czechoslovak governments in the past and the two countries fought a brief seven-day war over it in The formal beginning of World War II was marked by the Nazi German invasion of Poland on 1 Septemberfollowed by the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September.

On 28 September Warsaw capitulated. As agreed earlier in the Molotov—Ribbentrop PactPoland was split into two zones, one occupied by Nazi Germanythe other, including all of Kresyfell under the control of the Soviet Union.

In —41, the Soviets deported hundreds of thousands of Poles to distant parts of the Soviet Union. The Soviet NKVD secretly executed thousands of Polish prisoners of war inter alia Katyn massacre ahead of the Operation Barbarossa.

Poland made the fourth-largest troop contribution in the Europe [b] and its troops served both the Polish Government in Exile in the west and Soviet leadership in the east.

In the west, the Polish expeditionary corps played an important role in the Italian and North African Campaigns and are particularly remembered for the Battle of Monte Cassino. Polish servicemen were also active in the theatres of naval and air warfare; during the Battle of Britain Polish squadrons such as the No. Meanwhile, the Polish Navy was active in the protection of convoys in the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean. The domestic underground resistance movement, the Armia Krajowa Home Armyfought against German occupation.

The wartime resistance movement in Poland was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, [c] and encompassed an unusually broad range of clandestine activities, which functioned as an underground state complete with degree-awarding universities and a court system. Secondary motives were to see Warsaw liberated before the Soviets could reach the capital, so as to underscore Polish sovereignty by empowering the Polish Underground State before the Soviet-backed Polish Committee of National Liberation could assume control.

A lack of Allied support and Stalin's reluctance to allow the 1st Army to help their fellow countrymen take the city led to the uprising's failure and subsequent planned destruction of the city. German forces under direct order from Adolf Hitler set up six extermination campsall of which operated in the heart of Poland.

They included TreblinkaMajdanek and Auschwitz. The Germans to transported the condemned Jews from the Third Reich and across occupied Europe to murder them in the death camps set up in the Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany.

Throughout the occupationmany members of the Armia Krajowa, supported by the Polish government in exileand millions of ordinary Poles — at great risk to themselves and their families — engaged in rescuing Jews from the Nazi Germans. Grouped by nationality, Poles represent the largest number of people who rescued Jews during the Holocaust.

To date, 6, Poles have been awarded the title of Righteous Among the Nations by the State of Israel—more than any other nation. The massacres were part of a vicious ethnic clensing campaign waged by Ukrainian nationalists against the local Polish population in the German-occupied territories of eastern Poland. At the war's conclusion inPoland's borders were shifted westwardsresulting in considerable territorial losses.

Most of the Polish inhabitants of Kresy were expelled along the Curzon Line in accordance with Stalin's agreements. The shift forced the migration of millions of other peoplemost of whom were Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews. Population numbers did not recover until the s. At the insistence of Joseph Stalinthe Yalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored the Polish government-in-exile based in London; a move which angered many Poles who considered it a betrayal by the Allies.

InStalin had made guarantees to Churchill and Roosevelt that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory inthe elections organized by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of 'legitimacy' for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs.

The Soviet Union instituted a new communist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of the Eastern Bloc. As elsewhere in Communist Europe the Soviet occupation of Poland met with armed resistance from the outset which continued into the fifties. Military alignment within the Warsaw Pact throughout the Cold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture and in the European scene came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.

The People's Republic of Poland Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa was officially proclaimed in Collectivization in the Polish People's Republic failed. A similar situation repeated itself in the s under Edward Gierekbut most of the time persecution of anti-communist opposition groups persisted. Despite this, Poland was at the time considered to be one of the least oppressive states of the Soviet Bloc.

Despite persecution and imposition of martial law init eroded the dominance of the Polish United Workers' Party and by had triumphed in Poland's first partially free and democratic parliamentary elections since the end of the Second World War.

The Solidarity movement heralded the collapse of communist regimes and parties across Europe. A shock therapy programme, initiated by Leszek Balcerowicz in the early s enabled the country to transform its socialist-style planned economy into a market economy. As with other post-communist countries, Poland suffered slumps in social and economic standards, [85] but it became the first post-communist country to reach its pre GDP levels, which it achieved by largely thanks to its booming economy.

Most visibly, there were numerous improvements in human rights, such as freedom of speechinternet freedom no censorshipcivil liberties 1st class and political rights 1st classas ranked by Freedom House non-governmental organization. Poles then voted to join the European Union in a referendum in Junewith Poland becoming a full member on 1 May Poland joined the Schengen Area inas a result of which, the country's borders with other member states of the European Union have been dismantled, allowing for full freedom of movement within most of the EU.

That border has become increasingly well protected, and has led in part to the coining of the phrase 'Fortress Europe'in reference to the seeming 'impossibility' of gaining entry to the EU for citizens of the former Soviet Union. These battle groups will operate outside of NATO and within the European defense initiative framework.

Inthe Presidency of the Council of the European Union responsible for the functioning of the Council was awarded to Poland. The same year parliamentary elections took place in both the Senate and the Sejm. They were won by the ruling Civic Platform. Poland joined European Space Agency inas well as organised the UEFA Euro along with Ukraine.

InPoland also became a member of the Development Assistance Committee. Inthe Prime Minister of PolandDonald Tuskwas chosen to be President of the European Counciland resigned as prime minister.

The elections were won by the opposion Law and Justice Party PiS. This coast is marked by several spitscoastal lakes former bays that have been cut off from the seaand dunes. The largely straight coastline is indented by the Szczecin Lagoonthe Bay of Puckand the Vistula Lagoon. The centre and parts of the north of the country lie within the North European Plain. Rising above these lowlands is a geographical region comprising four hilly districts of moraines and moraine-dammed lakes formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age.

These lake districts are the Pomeranian Lake District, the Greater Polish Lake District, the Kashubian Lake District, and the Masurian Lake District. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four and covers much of north-eastern Poland.

The lake districts form part of the Baltic Ridge, a series of moraine belts along the southern shore of the Baltic Sea. South of the Northern European Plain are the regions of LusatiaSilesia and Masoviawhich are marked by broad ice-age river valleys.

The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra Mountainsalong Poland's southern border. Both processes shaped the Sudetes and the Carpathian Mountains. The moraine landscape of northern Poland contains soils made up mostly of sand or loamwhile the ice age river valleys of the south often contain loess. The Polish Jura Chain has some of the oldest rock formation on the continent of Europe.

Poland has 70 mountains over 2, metres 6, feet in elevation, all in the Tatras. The Polish Tatras, which consist of the High Tatras and the Western Tatras, is the highest mountain group of Poland and of the entire Carpathian range.

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At its foot lies the mountain lakes of Czarny Staw pod Rysami Black Lake below Mount Rysyand Morskie Oko the Marine Eye. The lowest point in Poland — at 1. It is not a natural desert but results from human activity from the Middle Ages onwards. As waves and wind carry sand inland the dunes slowly move, at a rate of 3 to 10 metres 9.

The highest peak of the park is Rowokol metres or feet above sea level. The longest rivers are the Vistula Polish: The Vistula and the Oder flow into the Baltic Sea, as do numerous smaller rivers in Pomerania. The eastern Beskids are also the source of some streams that drain through the Dniester to the Black Sea. Poland's rivers have been used since early times for navigation. The Vikingsfor example, traveled up the Vistula and the Oder in their longships. With almost ten thousand closed bodies of water covering more than 1 hectare 2.

In Europe, only Finland has a greater density of lakes. In addition to the lake districts in the north in Masuria, Pomerania, KashubiaLubuskie, and Greater Polandthere is also a large number of mountain lakes in the Tatras, of which the Morskie Oko is the largest in area.

Among the first lakes whose shores were settled are those in the Greater Polish Lake District. The stilt house settlement of Biskupinoccupied by more than one thousand residents, was founded before the 7th century BC by people of the Lusatian culture.

Lakes have always played an important role in Polish history and continue to be of great importance to today's modern Polish society. The ancestors of today's Poles, the Polaniebuilt their first fortresses on islands in these lakes. Nowadays the Polish lakes provide a location for the pursuit of water sports such as yachting and wind-surfing. For the most part, Poland has a smooth coastline, which has been shaped by the continual movement of sand by currents and winds.

Prior to the end of the Second World War and subsequent change in national bordersPoland had only a very small coastline; this was situated at the end of the ' Polish Corridor ', the only internationally recognised Polish territory which afforded the country access to the sea.

However, after World War II, the redrawing of Poland's borders and resulting 'shift' of the country's borders left it with an expanded coastline, thus allowing for far greater access to the sea than was ever previously possible. The significance of this event, and importance of it to Poland's future as a major industrialised nation, was alluded to by the Wedding to the Sea. The largest spits are Hel Peninsula and the Vistula Spit.

The largest Polish Baltic island is called Wolin. Poland is the fourth most forested country in Europe. Forests cover about The richness of Polish forest per SoEF statistics is more than twice as high as European average with Germany and France at the topcontaining 2.

In addition, wetlands along lakes and rivers in central Poland are legally protected, as are coastal areas in the north. There are over areas designated as landscape parksalong with numerous nature reserves and other protected areas e. Since Poland's accession to the European Union inPolish agriculture has performed extremely well and the country has over two million private farms. Poland is the European Union's fourth largest supplier of pork after Germany, Spain and France.

PhytogeographicallyPoland belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Naturethe territory of Poland belongs to three Palearctic Ecoregions of the continental forest spanning Central and Northern European temperate broadleaf and mixed forest ecoregions as well as the Carpathian columbus ne livestock market conifer forest.

In the forests, one also encounters game animals, such as red deerroe deer and wild boars. There are also large forested areas in the mountains, Masuria, Pomerania, Lubusz Land and Lower Silesia. Poland is the most important breeding ground for a variety of European migratory birds.

The climate is mostly temperate throughout the country. The climate is oceanic in the north and west and becomes gradually warmer and continental towards the south and east. Precipitation falls throughout the year, although, especially dogfish head stock market the east; winter classification of indian stock market drier than summer.

The coldest region of Poland is in the northeast in the Podlaskie Voivodeship near the border of Belarus and Lithuania. The climate is affected by cold fronts which come from Scandinavia and Siberia.

Poland is a representative democracywith a president as a head of statewhose current constitution dates from Poland ranks in the top 20 percent of the most peaceful countries in the world, according to the Global Peace Index. The government structure centers on the Council of Ministersled by a prime minister. The president appoints the cabinet according to the proposals of the prime minister, typically from the majority coalition in the Sejm.

The president is elected by popular vote every five years. Polish voters elect a bicameral parliament consisting of a member lower house Sejm and a member Senate Senat. The Sejm is elected under proportional representation according to the d'Hondt methoda method similar to that used in many parliamentary political systems.

The Senat, on the other hand, is elected under the first-past-the-post voting method, with one senator being returned from each of the constituencies.

When sitting in joint session, members of the Sejm and Senat form the National Assembly the Zgromadzenie Narodowe. The National Assembly is formed on three occasions: To date only the first instance has occurred. The judicial branch plays an important role in decision-making.

On the approval of the Senat, the Sejm also appoints the ombudsman or the Commissioner for Civil Rights Protection Rzecznik Praw Obywatelskich for a five-year term. The ombudsman has the duty of guarding the observance and implementation of the rights and liberties of Polish citizens and residents, of the law and of principles of community life and social justice.

The Constitution of Poland is the supreme law in contemporary Poland, and the Polish legal system is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code of Civil Law.

Historically, the most famous Polish legal act is the Constitution of 3 May Historian Norman Davies describes it as the first of its kind in Europe. Primarily, it was designed to redress long-standing political defects of the federative Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealth and its Golden Liberty. Previously only the Henrican articles signed by each of Poland's elected kings could pricing american options with binomial trees the function of a set of basic laws.

The new Constitution introduced political equality between townspeople and the nobility szlachtaand placed the peasants under the protection of the government.

The Constitution abolished pernicious parliamentary institutions such as the liberum vetowhich at one time had placed the sejm at the mercy of any deputy who might choose, or be bribed by an interest or foreign power, to have rescinded all the legislation that had been passed by that sejm.

The 3 May Constitution sought to supplant the existing anarchy fostered by some of the country's reactionary magnateswith a more egalitarian and democratic constitutional monarchy. The adoption of the constitution was treated as a threat by Poland's neighbours.

The Republic and Article 54 section II. The Freedoms, Rights and Obligations of Persons and Citizens of the Constitution of Poland.

Feminism in Poland started in the s in the age of the foreign Partitions. Prior to the last Partition intax-paying females were allowed to take part in political life.

Sincefollowing the return to independence, all women could vote. Poland was the 15th 12th sovereign country to introduce universal women's suffrage. Currently, in Poland abortion is allowed only in special circumstances, such as when the woman's life or health is endangered by the continuation of pregnancy, when the pregnancy is a result of a criminal act, or when the fetus is seriously malformed.

Also, Poland recognises gender change. Poland's current constitution was adopted by the National Assembly of Poland on 2 Aprilapproved by a national referendum on 25 Mayand came into effect on 17 October It guarantees a multi-party state, the freedoms of religion, speech and assembly, and specifically casts off many Communist ideals to create a ' free market economic system '.

It requires public officials to pursue ecologically sound public policy and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and to strike, whilst at the same time prohibiting the practices of forced medical experimentation, torture and corporal punishment.

In recent years, Poland has extended its responsibilities and position in European and international affairs, supporting and establishing friendly relations with other European nations and a large number of 'developing' countries. InPoland achieved full OECD membership, and at the 5 minute binary option methods to relieve stress Summit was invited to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NATO in the first wave of policy enlargement finally becoming a full member of NATO in March As changes since the fall of Communism in have redrawn the map of Europe, Poland has tried to forge strong and mutually beneficial relationships with its seven new neighbours, this has notably included signing 'friendship treaties' to replace links severed by the collapse of the Warsaw Pact.

Poland has forged a special relationships with Ukraine[] with whom it co-hosted the UEFA Euro football tournament, in an effort to firmly anchor the country within the Western world and provide it with an alternative to aligning itself with the Russian Federation. Despite many positive developments in the region, Poland has found itself in a position where it must seek to defend the rights of ethnic Poles living in the former Soviet Union ; this is particularly true of Belaruswhere in the Lukashenko regime launched a campaign against the Polish ethnic minority.

Poland is the sixth most populous member state of the European Union and has a grand total of 51 representatives in the European Parliament.

Ever since joining the union insuccessive Polish governments have pursued policies to increase the country's role in European and regional affairs. Poland's current voivodeships provinces are largely based on the country's historic regions, whereas those of the past two decades to had been centred on and named for individual cities. Administrative authority at voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed voivode governoran elected regional assembly sejmik and an executive elected by that assembly.

The voivodeships are subdivided into powiats often referred to in English as countiesand these are further divided into gminas stop payment on earnest money check known as communes or municipalities.

Major cities normally western livestock auction video the status of both gmina and powiat. Poland has 16 voivodeships, powiats including 65 cities with powiat statusand 2, gminas.

The Polish armed forces are composed of four branches: Plans call for the force, once fully active, to consist of 53, people who will be trained and equipped to counter potential hybrid warfare threats. However, its commander-in-chief is the President of the Republic.

The Polish army's size is estimated at aroundsoldiers The Polish Navy primarily operates in the Baltic Sea and conducts operations such as maritime patrol, search and rescue for the section of the Baltic under Polish sovereignty, as well as hydrographic measurements and research. Also, the Polish Navy played a more international role as part of the invasion of Iraqproviding logistical support for the United States Navy.

The current position of the Polish Air Force is much the same; it has routinely taken part in Baltic Air Policing assignments, but otherwise, with the exception of a number of units serving in Afghanistanhas seen no active combat since the end of the Second World War.

Inthe FC Block 52 was chosen as the new general multi-role fighter for the air force, the first deliveries taking place in November The most important mission of the armed forces is the defence of Polish territorial integrity and Polish interests abroad.

Compulsory military service for men was discontinued in Fromuntil conscription ended inthe mandatory service was nine months. Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners. From to Poland was a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions. Currently, Poland's military is going through a significant modernization phase, which will be completed in Also, the army plans to modernize its existing inventory of main battle tanksand update its stock of small arms.

In May the Ministry of National Defence has assured that the Polish army will be increased toactive personnel. Poland has a highly developed system of law enforcement with a long history of effective policing by the State Police Service.

The structure of law enforcement agencies within Poland is a multi-tier one, with the State Police providing criminal-investigative services, Municipal Police serving to maintain public order and a number of other specialised agencies, such as the Polish Border Guardacting to fulfil their assigned missions. In addition to these state services, private security companies are also common, although they possess no powers assigned to state agencies, such as, for example, the power to make an arrest or detain a suspect.

Emergency services in Poland consist of the emergency medical servicessearch and rescue units of the Polish Armed Forces and State Fire Service. Emergency medical services in Poland are, unlike other services, provided for by local and regional government.

Since joining the European Union all of Poland's emergency services have been undergoing major restructuring and have, in the process, acquired large amounts of new equipment and staff.

In indian stock trading for nri, the police and other agencies have been steadily replacing and modernising their fleets of vehicles. Poland's economy is considered to be one of the more resilient of the post-Communist countries and is one of the fastest growing within the EU.

It is an example of the transition from a centrally planned to a primarily market-based economy. The country's most successful exports include machinery, furniture, food products, clothing, shoes and cosmetics. The privatization of small and medium state-owned companies and a liberal law on establishing new firms have allowed the development of the private sector. Also, several consumer rights organizations have become active in the country. Restructuring and privatisation of "sensitive sectors" such as coal, steel, rail transport and energy has been continuing since They are regulated by the Polish Financial Supervision Authority.

During the transformation to a market-oriented economy, the government privatized several banks, recapitalized the rest, and introduced legal reforms that made the sector more competitive. This has attracted a significant number of strategic foreign investors ICFI. Poland's banking sector has approximately 5 national banks, a network of nearly cooperative banks and 18 branches of foreign-owned banks. Poland has a large number of private farms in its agricultural sector, how to sell employee stock on etrade the potential to become a leading producer of food in the European Union.

The biggest money-makers abroad include smoked and fresh fish, fine chocolate, and dairy products, meats and specialty breads, [] with the exchange rate conducive to export growth. Warsaw leads Central Europe in foreign investment. Since the opening of the labor market in the European UnionPoland experienced a mass emigration of over 2.

Products and goods manufactured in Poland include: Poland is also one of the world's biggest producers of coppersilver and coalas well as potatoesryerapeseedcabbageapplesstrawberries and ribes. Poland is recognised as a regional economic leader within Central and Eastern Europe, with nearly 40 percent of the biggest companies in the region by revenues as well as a high globalisation rate.

The economic transition in has resulted pay per lead affiliate program make money a dynamic increase in the number and value of investments conducted by Polish corporations abroad.

Over a quarter of these companies have participated in a foreign project or joint ventureand 72 percent decided to continue foreign expansion.

According to reports made by the National Bank of Polandthe value of Polish foreign direct investments reached almost billion PLN at the end of The Central Statistical Office estimated that in there were around 1, Polish corporations with interests in 3, foreign entities.

The list includes the largest companies by turnover in excluding banks and insurance companies:. Poland experienced an increase in the number of tourists after joining the European Union in Tourist attractions in Poland vary, from the mountains in the south to the sandy beaches in the north, with a trail of nearly every architectural style.

The Polish capital Warsaw and its historical Old Town were entirely reconstructed after wartime destruction. Poland is the 16th most visited country in the world by foreign tourists, as ranked by World Tourism Organization UNWTO.

Poland's main tourist offerings include outdoor activities such as skiing, sailing, mountain hiking and climbing, as well as agrotourism, sightseeing historical monuments.

The Pieniny and Bieszczady Mountains lie in the extreme south-east. The electricity generation sector in Poland is largely fossil-fuel —based. Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary black tuesday stock market crashes triggers great depression material in production of their energy.

InPoland scored 48 out of states in the Energy Sustainability Index. All three of these companies are key constituents of the Warsaw Stock Exchange 's lead are binary option worth it magnetic indexes.

Renewable forms of energy account for a smaller proportion of Poland's full energy generation capacity. This is to be achieved mainly through the construction of wind farms anushka forex gurgaon a number of hydroelectric stations. Poland has around ,, m 3 of proven natural gas reserves and around 96, barrels of proven oil reserves.

These reserves are exploited by energy supply companies such as PKN Orlen "the only Polish company listed in the Fortune Global ". However, the small amounts of fossil fuels naturally occurring in Poland is insufficient to satisfy the full energy consumption needs of the population.

Therefore, the country is a net importer of oil and natural gas. Transport in Poland is provided by means of railroadmarine shipping and air travel. Positioned in Central Europe with its eastern and part of its northeastern border constituting the longest land border of the Schengen Area with the rest of Northern and Central Europe. Since joining the EU in MayPoland has invested large amounts of public funds into modernization projects of its transport networks. The country now has a developing highways network composed of motorways such as the A1A2A4A8A18 and express roads such as the S1S3S5S7S8.

In addition to these newly built roads, many local and regional roads are being fixed as part of a national programme to rebuild all roads in Poland. Additionally, in DecemberPoland began to implement high—speed rail routes connecting major Polish cities. The Polish government has revealed that it intends to connect all major cities to a future high-speed rail network by Most intercity rolling spot forex contract fsa routes in Poland are operated by PKP Best companies buy stock marketwatchwhilst regional trains are run by a number of operators, the largest of which is Przewozy Regionalne.

Currently, it is the line with highest railway speed in Poland. Warsaw stock exchange trading calendar 2013 air and maritime transport markets in Poland are largely well developed.

Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which is Warsaw Chopin Airportthe primary global hub for LOT Polish Airlines. LOT is the 28th largest European airline and the world's 12th oldest still in operationestablished in from a merger of Aerolloyd and Aero Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditional universitiesas well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around 61, researchers and members of staff.

There are around research and development institutes, with about 10, researchers. In total, there are around 91, scientists in Poland today. In the first half of the 20th century, Poland was a flourishing centre of mathematics. The events of World War II pushed many of them into exile. An alumnus of the Warsaw School of Mathematics was Antoni Zygmundone of the shapers of 20th century mathematical analysis. Over 40 research and development centers and 4, researchers make Poland the biggest research and development hub in Central and Eastern Europe.

ABB, DelphiGlaxoSmithKlineGoogleHewlett—PackardIBMIntelLG ElectronicsMicrosoftMotorolaSiemens and Samsung all have set up research and development centres in Poland. The public postal service in Poland is operated by Poczta Polska the Polish Post. The service was dissolved during the foreign partitions in the 18th century. After regaining independence inPoland saw the rapid development of the postal system as new services were introduced including money transferspayment of pensions, delivery of magazines, and air mail.

The government-owned enterprise of Polish Post, Telegraph and Telephone Polska Poczta, Telegraf i Telefon was established in During wars and national uprisings communication was provided mainly through the military authorities. At dell stock marketwatch, the service is a modern state-owned company that provides a number of standard and express delivery as well as home-delivery services.

With an estimated number of around 83, employees[] Poczta Polska also has a personal tracking system for parcels. In the company adopted a strategy that assumes increasing revenues to 6. Poland, with 38, inhabitants, has the eighth-largest population in Europe and the sixth-largest in the European Union.

It has a population density of inhabitants per square kilometer per square mile. Poland historically contained many languages, cultures and religions on its soil. A6 forex country had a particularly large Jewish population prior forex ea systems profx 2.0 World War IIwhen the Nazi Germany's regime led to the Holocaust.

There were an estimated 3 million Jews living in Poland before the war—less thansurvived. The outcome of the war, particularly the shift of Poland's borders to the area between the Curzon Line and the Carbon emissions cap and trade system linecoupled with post-war expulsion of minoritiessignificantly reduced the country's ethnic diversity.

Over 7 million Germans fled or were expelled from the Polish side of the Oder-Neisse boundary, after the country's borders were re-drawn by the big three Allied powers United States, Britain and the Soviet Union after the war. According to the census36, people, or The Polish language, part of the West Slavic warsaw stock exchange trading calendar 2013 of the Slavic languagesfunctions as the official language of Poland.

Until recent decades Russian was commonly learned as a second language, but has forex candlestick video tutorial replaced by English as the most common second language studied and spoken. In recent years, Poland's population has decreased due to an increase in emigration and a decline in the birth rate.

Since Poland's accession to the European Union, a significant number of Poles have emigratedprimarily to the United KingdomGermany and Ireland in search of better work opportunities abroad. As a result, the Polish Minister of Development Mateusz Morawiecki suggested that Poles abroad should return to Poland. Polish minorities are still present in the neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries see Poles for population numbers.

It belongs to the Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages. It is one of the official languages of the European Union. The deaf communities use Polish Sign Language belonging to the German family of Sign Languages. According to the Act of 6 January on national and ethnic minorities and on the regional languages[] 16 other languages have officially recognized status of minority languages: Jewish and Romani minorities each have forex trading utilities minority languages recognized.

Languages having the status of national minority's language are Armenian, Belarusian, Czech, German, Yiddish, Hebrew, Lithuanian, Russian, Slovak and Ukrainian. Languages having the status of ethnic minority's language are KaraimKashubianRusyn called Lemko in Poland and Tatar. Also, official recognition is granted to two Romani languages: Polska Roma and Bergitka Roma. Official recognition of a language provides certain rights under conditions prescribed by the law: Since the country adopted Christianity inPoland has contributed significantly to the development of ideals, which upheld and guaranteed religious freedoms.

Inthe Statute of Kalisz also known as a "Charter of Jewish Liberties" granted Jews living in the Polish lands unprecedented legal rights not found anywhere in Europe. However, inthe Warsaw Confederation marked the formal beginning of extensive religious freedoms granted to all faiths in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The act was not imposed by a king or consequence of war, but rather resulted from the actions of members of the Polish-Lithuanian society.

It was also influenced by the events of the French St. Bartholomew's Day Massacrewhich prompted the Polish-Lithuanian nobility to see that no monarch would ever be able to carry out such reprehensible atrocities in Poland. The act is also credited with keeping the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth out of the Thirty Years' Warfought between German Protestants and Catholics.

Also, in the 16th century, Anabaptists from the Netherlands and Germany settled in Poland—after being persecuted in Western Europe—and became known as the Vistula delta Mennonites. Until World War II, Poland was a religiously diverse society, in which substantial JewishChristian OrthodoxProtestantArmenian Christian and Roman Catholic groups coexisted. As a result of the Holocaust and the post—World War II flight and expulsion of German and Ukrainian populations, Poland has become overwhelmingly Roman Catholic.

He is the only Polish Pope to date. Members of Protestant churches include about most volatile currency pairs in forex, Lutherans in the Evangelical-Augsburg Church[7] 23, Pentecostals in the Pentecostal Church in Polandand smaller numbers in various other Christian Evangelical churches.

There are also a several thousand neopagans, some of whom are members of officially registered churches such as the Native Polish Church. Freedom of religion is now guaranteed by the statute of the Polish Constitution, [] enabling the emergence of additional denominations. Orthodox pilgrims visit Mountain Grabarka near Grabarka-Klasztor. Poland's healthcare system is based on an all-inclusive insurance system.

State subsidised healthcare is available to all Polish citizens who are covered by this general health insurance program. However, it is not compulsory to be treated in a state-run hospital as a number of private medical complexes exist nationwide.

All medical service providers and hospitals in Poland are subordinate to the Polish Ministry of Healthwhich provides oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice as well as being responsible for the day-to-day administration of the healthcare system.

Poland - Wikipedia

In addition to these roles, the ministry is tasked with the maintenance of standards of hygiene and patient-care.

Hospitals in Poland are organised according to the regional administrative structure, resultantly most towns have their own hospital Szpital Miejski. Inthe Polish health-care industry experienced further transformation. Hospitals were given priority for refurbishment where necessary. Inthe average life expectancy at birth was The Commission of National Education Komisja Edukacji Narodowej established inwas the world's first state ministry of education.

The modern-day Programme for International Student Assessmentcoordinated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Developmentranks Poland's educational system in its PISA as the 10th best in the world, [] scoring higher than the OECD average.

It is compulsory that children participate in one year of formal education before entering the 1st class at no later than 7 years of age. Corporal punishment of children in schools is officially prohibited since before the partitions and criminalised since in schools as well as at home.

They will attend this school for three years during classes 7, 8, and 9. Students then take another compulsory exam how much did lebron james make from nike determine the upper secondary level school they will attend. There are several alternatives, the most common being the three years in a liceum or four years in a technikum.

In Poland, there are university-level institutions for the pursuit of higher education. Also, there are a number of higher educational institutions dedicated to the teaching of the arts—amongst these are the 7 academies of music. The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,year history [] Its unique character developed as a result of its geography at the confluence of European cultures. With origins in the culture of the Proto-Slavsover time Polish culture has been profoundly influenced by its interweaving ties with the GermanicLatinate and Byzantine worlds as well as in continual dialog with the many other ethnic groups and minorities living in Poland.

In the 19th and 20th centuries the Polish focus on cultural advancement often took precedence over political and economic activity.

These factors have contributed to the versatile nature of Polish art, with all its complex nuances. Joseph Conrad was a notable ftse 100 stocks to buy of works in English.

Actresses known outside of Poland, include Helena Modjeska and Pola Negri. Poland has maintained a high level of gender equalityan established disability rights movement and promotes peaceful equality. Throughout most of its history, Poland has experienced only very limited immigration from abroad; this trend can be largely attributed to Poland's rejection of slavery and to a lack of overseas colonies as well as occupation of its territories during much of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Despite this, the country has for a long time been regarded as having a very tolerant society, which affords equal rights to all people tsx market holidays 2016 matter what their ethnic background.

The history of Jews in Poland exemplifies peaceful co-existence of a nation with a particular ethnic group. Inthe Polish parliament rejected proposed legislation for civil partnerships, which the majority of Polish society is against, [] but for the first time it gave an asylum to a gay person from Uganda on the basis of the sexual orientation.

A article in Rzeczpospolita reported that in a study three-quarters of Poles were against gay marriage and the adoption of children by gay couples.

As of [update]Poland is one of the few countries in Europe where rock and hip hop dominate over pop music, while all kinds of alternative music genres are encouraged.

At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like the polonaise. In the 19th century the most popular composers were: Alexandre Tansman lived in Paris but had strong connections with Poland.

Traditional Polish folk music has had a major effect on the works of many well-known Polish composers, and no more so than on Fryderyk Chopin, a widely recognised national hero of the arts.

All of Chopin's works involve the piano and are technically demanding, emphasising nuance and expressive depth. It is largely thanks to him that such pieces gained great popularity throughout Europe during the how to win in binary options zeta formula century. Nowadays the most distinctive folk music can be heard in the towns and villages of the mountainous south, particularly in the region surrounding the winter resort town of Zakopane.

Today Poland has a very active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such as Krzysztof Komeda created a unique style, which was most famous in the s and s and continues to be popular to this day.

Since the fall of Communism, Poland has become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are the Open'er FestivalOpole Festival and Sopot Festival. Polish art has always reflected European trends while maintaining its unique character. Artists of the twentieth-century Avant-Garde represented various schools and trends.

The most celebrated Polish sculptors include Xawery DunikowskiKatarzyna KobroAlina Szapocznikow and Magdalena Abakanowicz. Since the inter-war years, Polish art and documentary photography has enjoyed worldwide recognition. Polish cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum of European architectural styles. Romanesque architecture is represented by St. History has not been kind to Poland's architectural monuments.

Nonetheless, a number of ancient structures has survived: The centre of Kazimierz Dolny on the Vistula is a good example of a well-preserved medieval town. The second half of the 17th century is marked by baroque architecture. The profuse decorations of the Branicki Palace in Warsaw are characteristic of the rococo style.

The earliest Polish literature dates back to the 12th century, [] when Poland's official language was Latin. Within Polish literary customs, it is appropriate to highlight the published works concerning Poland not written by ethnic Poles. The most vivid example is Gallus Anonymusa foreign monk and the first chronicler who described Poland and its territories. The first documented phrase in the Polish language reads " Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai " "Let me grind, and you take a rest"reflecting the culture of early Poland.

The sentence was allegedly uttered almost a hundred years earlier by a Bohemian settler, who expressed pity for his spouse's duty of grinding by the quern-stone. The sentence has been included in the UNESCO Memory of World Register. Most medieval records in Latin and the Old Polish language contain the oldest extant manuscript of fine Polish prose entitled the Holy Cross Sermonsas well as the earliest Polish-language bible, the so-called Bible of Queen Sophia.

Haller's Calendarium cracoviensean astronomical wall calendar fromis Poland's oldest surviving print. A Polish writer who utilized Latin as his principal tool of expression was Klemens "Ianicius" Janickione of the most renowned Latin poets of his time, who was laureled by the Pope.

Other writers of the Polish Renaissance include Johannes DantiscusAndreus Fricius ModreviusMatthias Sarbievius and Piotr Skarga. Throughout this period Poland also experienced the early stages of Protestant Reformation. The main figure of Polish Reformation was John Laskiwho, with the permission of King Edward VI of Englandcreated the European Protestant Congregation of London in During the Polish Baroque era, the Jesuits greatly influenced Polish literature and literary techniques, often relying on God and religious matters.

Jan Chryzostom Pasekalso a respected baroque writer, is mostly remembered for his tales and memoirs reflecting sarmatian culture in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In Ignacy Krasicki composed the first proper novel entitled The Adventures of Mr.

Nicholas Wisdomwhich was a milestone for Polish literature. A Polish prose poet of the highest order, Joseph Conradthe son of dramatist Apollo Korzeniowskiwon worldwide fame with his English-language novels and stories that are informed with elements of the Polish national experience.

Poland has instituted freedom of press since the fall of communism, a system under which the media was heavily politically controlled and censored. However, public TV and radio are still regulated by the government, this is exercised through an agency called Krajowa Rada Radiofonii i Telewizji The National Radio and Television Committeewhich is similar to television regulatory commissions in other developed nations.

Poland has a number of major media outlets, chief among which are the national television channels. TVP is Poland's public broadcasting corporation; about a third of its income comes from a broadcast receiver licencewhile the rest is made through revenue from commercials and sponsorships.

State television operates two mainstream channels, TVP 1 and TVP 2, as well as regional programs for each of the country's 16 voivodeships. In addition to these general channels, TVP runs a number of genre-specific programmes such as TVP SportTVP HistoriaTVP KulturaTVP Seriale and TV Poloniathe latter is a state-run channel dedicated to the transmission of Polish language television for the Polish diaspora abroad.

Poland has several hour news channels: Polsat NewsTVP Info and TVN The two largest private television networks are Polsat and TVN. In Poland, daily newspapers like Gazeta Wyborcza "Electoral Gazette"Rzeczpospolita "The Republic" and Gazeta Polska Codziennie "Polish Daily Newspaper" provide traditional opinion and news, while tabloids such as Fakt provide more sensationalist journalism. Rzeczpospolitafounded in is one of the oldest newspapers still in operation.

Init won a prestigious award for being, along with the Guardian a British dailythe best designed newspaper in the world. Poland also has emerged as a major hub for video game developers in Europe, with the country now being home to hundreds of studios.

One of the most popular video game series developed in Poland includes The Witcher. Polish cuisine has evolved over the centuries to become very eclectic due to Poland's history. Polish cuisine shares many similarities with other Central European cuisinesespecially German and Austrian [] as well as Jewish[] BelarusianUkrainianRussian[] French and Italian culinary traditions. Festive meals such as the meatless Christmas Eve dinner Wigilia or Easter breakfast could take days to prepare in their entirety.

The side dishes are usually potatoes, rice or kasza cereals. The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland.

Other frequently consumed beverages include various mineral waters and juices, soft drinks popularized by the fast-food chains since the late 20th century, as well as buttermilksoured milk and kefir. Association football and volleyball are among the country's most popular sports, with a rich history of international competitions. The golden era of football in Poland occurred throughout the s and went on until the early s when the Polish national football team achieved their best results in any FIFA World Cup competitions finishing 3rd place in the and the tournaments.

The team won a gold medal in football at the Summer Olympics and two silver medals, in and in Poland, along with Ukraine, hosted the UEFA European Football Championship in The Polish men's national volleyball team is ranked as 3rd in the world. Volleyball team won a gold medal in Olympic Montreal and two gold medals in FIVB World Championshipand hosted.

The first Polish Formula One driver, Robert Kubicahas brought awareness of Formula One racing to Poland. He won the Canadian Grand Prix and now does rallying following a crash in that left him unable to drive F1 cars. Poland has made a distinctive mark in motorcycle speedway racing thanks to Tomasz Golloba highly successful Polish rider.

The top Ekstraliga division has one of the highest average attendances for any sport in Poland. The national speedway team of Polandone of the major teams in international speedway, [] has won the Speedway World Team Cup championships three times consecutively, in, and No team has ever managed such feat. Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in the Himalayas and the winter ascending of the eight-thousanders. The most famous Polish climbers are Jerzy KukuczkaKrzysztof WielickiPiotr PustelnikAndrzej ZawadaMaciej BerbekaArtur HajzerAndrzej CzokWojciech Kurtykaand women Wanda Rutkiewiczand Kinga Baranowska.

Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world. Fashion was always an important aspect of Poland and its national identity. Poland belongs to one of the most fashionable and best-dressed countries in the world.

Moreover, several Polish designers and stylists left a lifelong legacy of beauty inventions and cosmeticswhich are still in use nowadays. Throughout history, the clothing styles in Poland often varied due to foreign influence, especially from the neighbouring countries and the Middle East.

Because of its geographical position, Poland was metaphorically referred to as a trade route that linked Western Europe with the Ottoman EmpireCrimean Khanate and Persia. This allowed the Poles to absorb several habits, which were present in the Middle East at the time. The high-class nobility and magnates wore attire that somewhat resembled oriental styles. Wealthy Polish aristocrats also kept captive Tatars and Janissaries in their courts; this had an impact on the national dress.

The Polish national dress as well as the fashion and etiquette of Poland also reached the royal court at Versailles in the 18th century. In the early 20th century, the underdeveloped fashion and cosmetics industry in Congress Poland was heavily dominated by western styles, mostly from the United Kingdom and the United States. This inspired Polish beautician Maksymilian Faktorowicz to seek employment abroad and create a line of cosmetics company called Max Factor in California.

In Faktorowicz invented the conjoined word "make-up" based on the verb phrase "to make up" one's face, which is now used as an alternative for "cosmetics". Another Pole that contributed to the development of cosmetics was Helena Rubinsteinthe founder of Helena Rubinstein Incorporated Cosmetics Companywhich made her one of the richest women in the world. Established inthe retail store Reserved is Poland's best clothing store chain, operating over 1, retail shops in 18 countries.

All twenty-eight member states of the European Union are also members of the WTO in their own right: Special administrative regions of the People's Republic of Chinaparticipates as "Hong Kong, China" and "Macao China". Officially the Republic of China, participates as " Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu ", and "Chinese Taipei" in short. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the dance, see Polska dance. For other uses, see Poland disambiguation.

For other uses, see Rzeczpospolita Polska disambiguation. Bronze- and Iron-Age PolandPoland in Antiquityand Poland in the Early Middle Ages. History of Poland during the Piast dynastyCivitas Schinesgheand Gesta principum Polonorum. History of Poland during the Jagiellon dynasty and Renaissance in Poland.

History of Poland in the Early Modern era —Polish—Lithuanian Commonwealthand Sarmatism. History of Poland — and Partitions of Poland. Duchy of WarsawGrand Duchy of PosenKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeriaand Congress Poland. History of Poland —39Kingdom of Poland —18Second Polish Republicand Battle of Warsaw History of Poland —45Invasion of PolandPolish contribution to World War IIand War crimes in occupied Poland during World War II.

History of Poland —Polish People's RepublicHistory of Solidarityand Polish Round Table Agreement. History of Poland —present and enlargement of the European Union. Foreign relations of Poland. Administrative divisions of Poland. Polish Armed Forces and Territorial Defence Force Poland. Law enforcement in Poland and Emergency medical services in Poland. Tourism in PolandList of World Heritage Sites of PolandList of Historic Monuments PolandSeven Wonders of Polandand Crown of Polish Mountains.

Energy in Poland and Coal mining in Poland. Polish science and technology. Demographics of Poland and Demographic history of Poland. Largest cities or towns in Poland Central Statistical Office population report for Polish language and Languages of Poland.

Religions in Poland Roman Catholicism. Education in PolandUniversities in Polandand List of schools in Poland. Ballade form invented by Chopin. Inspired by poems of Adam Mickiewicz. List of Polish artists. Polish literature and History of philosophy in Poland. Television in PolandMedia of PolandTheatre of Polandand Cinema of Poland.

Video gaming in Poland. Zaloga and Richard Hook write that "by the war's end the Polish Army was the fourth largest contingent of the Allied coalition after the armed forces of the Soviet Union, the United States and the United Kingdom". Dziewanowski has noted that "if Polish forces fighting in the east and west were added to the resistance fighters, Poland had the fourth largest Allied army in the war after the USSR, the U.

Throughout the war, Poland's position varied from the 2nd biggest Ally after the fall of Francewhen Polish army outnumbered the French to perhaps the 5th at the end of it after the US, Soviet Union, China and Britain. Please see the analysis in Polish contribution to World War II. The confusion often stems from the fact that as war progressed, some resistance movements grew larger — and other diminished. Polish territories were mostly freed from Nazi German control in the years —45, eliminating the need for their respective anti-Nazi partisan forces in Poland although the cursed soldiers continued to fight against the Soviets.

Several sources note that Polish Armia Krajowa was the largest resistance movement in Nazi-occupied Europe.

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Retrieved 7 May UNWTO World Tourism Barometer. Archived from the original PDF file, direct download KB on 18 July Retrieved 31 December Archived from the original PDF on 25 March Archived from the original PDF on 9 July A century of X-rays and radioactivity in medicine: Archived from the original on 19 February The Expulsion of Germans from Central Europe during and after World War.

In former satellite countries like Hungary or Poland, knowledge of Russian dwindled rapidly — to be replaced by English and German. Retrieved 28 September Retrieved 12 April Romani VlaxRomani CarpathianRomani SinteBaltic Romani.

ISBN Retrieved 31 May Retrieved 31 March Archived from the original on 14 February May be distributed freely. Archived from the original on 11 December Archived from the original on 28 November Retrieved 15 September Archived from the original on 2 January Retrieved 14 September The Polish health care system, An introduction: Retrieved 12 June Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland — Retrieved 17 September Number of students at Poland's institutions of higher education, as of 30 November Retrieved 13 June Retrieved 28 October Thaddeus Kosciuszko and the Age of Revolution Google Book.

Martin's Press, pages. A Thousand Year History of the Poles and Their Culture. Access date 13 December Retrieved 10 October God's Playground; A History of Poland, Vol. The Origins to Le petit Robert 2: Le Robert, Paris, FRANCE. The Concise Oxford dictionary of music. Archived from the original on 14 September Retrieved 30 September God's Playground A History of Poland. Retrieved 30 June Retrieved 30 July Marriage, being a union of a man and a woman, as well as the family, motherhood and parenthood, shall be placed under the protection and care of the Republic of Poland.

Retrieved 20 January Archived from the original on 22 August Countries whose governments fully comply with the TVPA's minimum standards. Piotr Metz 7 June Archived from the original PDF on 29 May Retrieved 13 May Retrieved 7 January Archived from the original PDF on 23 June Retrieved 23 April Archived from the original on 8 November Retrieved 10 December Retrieved 24 May The Oldest Extant Prose Text in the Polish language. The Phenomenon of the Holy Cross Sermons.

Trade and Urban Development in Poland: An Economic Geography of Cracow, from Its Origins to Parafia Ewangelicko-Reformowana w Warszawie. Retrieved 24 May — via Google Books. The Peasant and Communist Past in the Making of an Ecological Region: Small Truths Sharply Etched". Retrieved 9 March Retrieved 6 June Wigilia article from Pope John Paul II Polish Center. Centrum Polonijne w Jorba Linda, California. Archived from the original on 30 September Poland win Speedway World Cup". Retrieved 18 December The Ultimate Guide to Poland, 17 July The History of Max Factor".

Retrieved 24 May — via content. The New York Times. Retrieved 8 August Polish retailer LPP, the fashion giant nearing a UK debut News Retail Week". Polish fashion chain moves into BHS flagship store". Retrieved 24 May — via The Guardian.

Zaloga; Richard Hook 21 January The Polish Army — Retrieved 6 March Historical dictionary of Poland, — Eastern Europe to A History of PolandColumbia University Press,ISBNGoogle Print p. The War That Never EndedYale University Press,ISBNGoogle Print, p. Europe's Displaced Persons, —Cornell University Press,ISBNGoogle Print, p. Grenkevich in The Soviet Partisan Movement, — A Critical Historiographical Analysis, p. A Historical Anthology, New York, Charles Scribiner,p.

Retrieved 1 March Cienciala, THE COMING OF THE WAR AND EASTERN EUROPE IN WORLD WAR II. Find more about Poland at Wikipedia's sister projects. Timeline Monarchs Prehistory and protohistory Middle Ages Early Modern — Partitions, duchies and kingdoms — World War I Interwar years World War II Communist Poland Poland since Cities and towns Forests Islands Lakes Mountains National parks Poland A and B Protected areas Regions Rivers.

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Countries bordering the Baltic Sea. Principal cities of Poland. Protected areas of Poland. Smallcaps indicate World Heritage Sites Italics indicate Biosphere reserves. Biosphere reserves Landscape parks Parki Krajobrazowe Nature reserves Rezerwaty przyrody Ramsar sites World Heritage Sites. Albania Andorra Armenia Belgium French Community Benin Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada New Brunswick Quebec Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Cyprus 1 Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Dominica Egypt Equatorial Guinea France French Guiana Guadeloupe Martinique St.

Pierre and Miquelon Gabon Ghana 1 Greece Guinea Guinea-Bissau Haiti Ivory Coast Laos Luxembourg Lebanon Macedonia 2 Madagascar Mali Mauritania Mauritius Moldova Monaco Morocco Niger Qatar Romania Rwanda St. Austria Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatia Czech Republic Dominican Republic Georgia Hungary Kosovo Latvia Lithuania Montenegro Mozambique Ontario Poland Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Thailand Ukraine United Arab Emirates Uruguay.

French language UN French Language Day International Francophonie Day Jeux de la Francophonie Prix des cinq continents de la francophonie Senghor University AFFOI TV5Monde LGBT rights.

Member states of the European Union. Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom. North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

North Atlantic Treaty Summit Operations Enlargement. Council Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe Air Command Land Command Maritime Command Allied Command Transformation Parliamentary Assembly Standardization Agreement. Secretary General Chairman of the Military Committee Supreme Allied Commander Europe Supreme Allied Commander Transformation. Albania Belgium Bulgaria Canada Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Estonia France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Turkey United Kingdom United States.

Atlantic Treaty Association Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council Mediterranean Dialogue Istanbul Cooperation Initiative Partnership for Peace. Secretary General Committee of Ministers Parliamentary Assembly Congress Court of Human Rights Commissioner for Human Rights Commission for the Efficiency of Justice Commission against Racism and Intolerance. Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia 1 Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom.

Canada Holy See Israel Japan Mexico United States Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Czechoslovakia — Saar assoc. Accession and membership Appellate Body Dispute Settlement Body International Trade Centre Chronology of key events. Criticism Doha Development Round Singapore issues Quota Elimination Peace Clause.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Agriculture Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures Technical Barriers to Trade Trade Related Investment Measures Trade in Services Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Government Procurement Information Technology Marrakech Agreement Doha Declaration Bali Package. Yonov Frederick Agah Karl Brauner David Shark Yi Xiaozhun former: Alejandro Jara Valentine Rugwabiza Harsha Singh Rufus Yerxa.

Kitts and Nevis St. Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden United Kingdom 2. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD. Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD Anti-Bribery Convention.

Multinational Enterprises Testing of Chemicals. Other symbols of Liberty. National symbols of Poland. Coat of arms Flag and colors Anthem. Flags Military eagle Air Force checkerboard Polish cavalry Polish hussars Kosynierzy Rogatywka. Crown jewels Jack Banner Grunwald Swords Szczerbiec. Name of Poland Rzeczpospolita. Authority control WorldCat Identities VIAF: Retrieved from " https: Poland Central European countries Liberal democracies Member states of NATO Member states of the Council of Europe Member states of the European Union Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean Member states of the United Nations Republics Slavic countries and territories States and territories established in Countries in Europe.

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